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Quando arqueólogos americanos descobriram uma coleção de tabuletas cuneiformes no Iraque, ao final do século XIX, eles se depararam com uma linguagem e um povo que, naquela época, era pouco conhecido até mesmo pelos estudiosos mais instruídos da antiga Mesopotâmia: os sumérios.

Um homem caolho, com uma capa cinza e um chapéu de abas largas apoiando-se em uma bengala. Um andarilho que aparece quando menos esperado, trazendo triunfo ou perdição. O deus da profecia, poesia e destino. Um metamorfo. Um feiticeiro. O deus Odin representa uma figura dramática na mitologia nórdica e permanece uma parte da imaginação popular. Ele é a inspiração para personagens como Gandalf o Cinza de J.R.R. Tolkien, e ainda faz parte de literatura moderna tão variada quanto histórias em quadrinhos da Marvel bem como o romance de Neil Gaiman Deuses Americanos.

Quando arqueólogos americanos descobriram uma coleção de tabuletas cuneiformes no Iraque, ao final do século XIX, eles se depararam com uma linguagem e um povo que, naquela época, era pouco conhecido até mesmo pelos estudiosos mais instruídos da antiga Mesopotâmia: os sumérios. As explorações e conquistas de outros povos mesopotâmicos, como os assírios e babilônios, já eram conhecidas por um grande segmento da população através do Antigo Testamento....

Um homem caolho, com uma capa cinza e um chapéu de abas largas apoiando-se em uma bengala. Um andarilho que aparece quando menos esperado, trazendo triunfo ou perdição. O deus da profecia, poesia e destino. Um metamorfo. Um feiticeiro. O deus Odin representa uma figura dramática na mitologia nórdica e permanece uma parte da imaginação popular. Ele é a inspiração para personagens como Gandalf o Cinza de J.R.R. Tolkien, e ainda faz parte de literatura moderna tão variada quanto histórias em quadrinhos da Marvel bem como o romance de Neil Gaiman Deuses Americanos.

Embora os sumérios continuem recebendo o segundo ou mesmo o terceiro faturamento em comparação aos babilônios e assírios, - talvez porque eles nunca construíram um império tão grandioso quanto os assírios ou nunca estabeleceram uma cidade tão grande e duradoura como a Babilônia - eles foram o povo que forneceu o modelo de civilização no qual todos os posteriores mesopotâmicos basearam-se. Os sumérios são creditados como sendo o primeiro povo a inventar a escrita e construir bibliotecas, cidades e escolas na Mesopotâmia (Ziskind 1972, 34).

“Pancho Villa,” people whispered at the beginning of the 20th century, "can march 100 miles without stopping, live 100 days without food, go 100 nights without sleep, and kill 100 men without remorse." The legend of Francisco Villa is full of heroism, tragedy and romance, a story about how a poor farmer boy became a bandit after avenging an injustice on his family and transformed into a military genius who fled from an oppressive government to lead the largest revolutionary army in his country's history.

There is a farm outside La Porte, Indiana, that no longer exists. The buildings burned to the ground on the morning of April 28, 1908, but what the fire left behind was a cellar full of horrors that the people of La Porte and the country at large spent the better part of that spring trying to comprehend. Investigators found the remains of several bodies that had been dismembered, wrapped, and buried with the kind of efficiency that suggested someone had done the work many times before.

Often called the “Father of Geometry,” Euclid’s influence is so pervasive that his book, The Elements, was the primary math manual for over 2,000 years. It was not a “textbook” in the modern sense, as it did not have problem sets, word problems, or diagrams for practice, but it was a foundational reference and logical guide that students had to read, memorize, and demonstrate. In the Western and Islamic worlds, Euclid’s Elements was the standard geometry text for almost every educated person until the 19th century.

Despite the enmity towards Carthage held by the Greeks and Romans, they nevertheless spent centuries romanticizing and mythologizing its legendary founder, Queen Dido. It’s an established fact that the Phoenicians established a maritime empire with Tyre at the forefront in the early 1st millennium BCE, and from that, the ancients believed that a Phoenician princess named Elisa fled Tyre to North Africa after her brother killed her husband, where she managed to negotiate with local leaders for land and secure the site of Carthage, becoming Queen Dido in the process.

Herman Webster Mudgett was born in 1861 in a small New Hampshire hill town, and he was dead before he turned 35. In the years between, operating under a name he had constructed to replace his own, he built a hotel in Chicago designed to kill its guests, committed a number of murders whose exact count remains in dispute, and earned the distinction of being among the first Americans to whom the word “serial killer”—a term that did not yet exist in his lifetime—could reasonably be applied.

Amid the upheaval in the Islamic world following Muhammad’s death, the Umayyad Caliphate lasted for less than a century, but it spent that time becoming one of the most influential of the major caliphates. Its official existence was from 661-750, and the rulers were the male members of the Umayyad dynasty, roughly translated from Arabic as the “Sons of Umayyah.” Its primary base of power was in Syria following the creation of a dynastic, hereditary rule headed by one of Syria’s long-lasting governors, Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan.

Ionia was one of the most important Greek settlements in Anatolia, and it was the home of one of the most influential figures of antiquity, Pythagoras of Samos. Pythagoras studied cosmology, geometry, and astronomy under Thales and his successor Anaximander, and by building on the legacies of their brilliant minds, Pythagoras refined and expanded upon their foundational concepts. However, he also went in a different direction, focusing on mysticism and numbers more than material principles.

Although the Sumerians continue to get second or even third billing compared to the Babylonians and Assyrians, perhaps because they never built an empire as great as the Assyrians or established a city as enduring and great as Babylon, they were the people who provided the template of civilization that all later Mesopotamians built upon. The Sumerians are credited with being the first people to invent writing, libraries, cities, and schools in, and many would argue that they were the first people to create and do those things anywhere in world.

The Protestant Reformation is often associated most closely with Martin Luther, and it’s often considered to have started when Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg on October 31, 1517. However, the Reformation cannot be reduced to a single, abrupt, and exceptional event, but must be traced to a much longer process of spiritual, social, and intellectual transformation that unfolded over the late medieval period.

Though extremely different men in most ways, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Third Reich Fuhrer Adolf Hitler shared a passion for science, technology, and (sometimes impractical) "wonder weapons." In some cases, this fixation paid off handsomely, as in the case of British centrimetric radar, a compact, powerful radar type that enabled fitment to individual aircraft and contributed to the defeat of German U-boats.

Although the Counter-Reformation is sometimes also called the Catholic Reformation, the latter term properly refers to the set of measures of spiritual, theological and liturgical renewal with which the Catholic Church had attempted to reform its institutions even before the Council of Trent. During the Council of Constance, for example, the council fathers had already called for a reform "in the head and in the members", but it was only after the Protestant Reformation that this need became urgent, resulting in the application of the Tridentine conciliar provisions.

The United States has no shortage of famous military units, from the Civil War’s Iron Brigade to the 101st Airborne, but one would be hard pressed to find one that had to go through as many hardships off the field as the Tuskegee Airmen, a group of African American pilots who overcame Jim Crow at home and official segregation in the military to serve their country in the final years of World War II.

In virtually all fields of human endeavor, Classical Athens was so much at the forefront of dynamism and innovation that the products of its most brilliant minds remain not only influential but still relevant to this day. To the ancient Greeks, the cosmos was ordered and harmonious. Consequently, reason and intellect were considered the architects of all art and craftsmanship. The absolute perfection of form was sought in everything and the Greek passion for simplicity, elegance, harmony, and beauty is to be found everywhere, particularly in architecture.

Japan's blissful isolation changed with the arrival of American Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853. In awe of the American weapons and ships, the Tokugawa shogunate quickly realized that they needed to evolve and modernize their military to survive, and a time of rapid change descended on Japan. Within a mere 30 years, the Tokugawa period’s great samurai caste was extinct. Military service was no longer the exclusive domain of the privileged warrior class who had combined the military with an intricate network of social status and vassalship to their feudal lords.

In southern Iraq, a crushing silence hangs over the dunes. For nearly 5,000 years, the sands of the Iraqi desert have held the remains of the oldest known civilization: the Sumerians. When American archaeologists discovered a collection of cuneiform tablets in Iraq in the late 19th century, they were confronted with a language and a people who were at the time only scarcely known to even the most knowledgeable scholars of ancient Mesopotamia.